Саню тюрк. Итс овер.

Here is a comprehensive analysis of major Asian language families and their associated Y-chromosome haplogroups, based on current genetic and linguistic research:

### 1. Sino-Tibetan
- Geographic Distribution: China, Himalayas, Northeast India, Myanmar
- Key Haplogroups:
- O3-M122 (50-60% in Han Chinese): Dominant in Han Chinese and Tibeto-Burman speakers. Subclades like O3a2c1a-M117 correlate with Neolithic expansions of rice farmers from the Yangtze Valley ~5-6 kya.
- D-M174: Found in Tibetans (15-30%) and Qiang, representing Paleolithic Himalayan settlers.
- N1-M231: High frequencies in some Tungusic and Turkic groups, with secondary spread into Siberia.
- Genetic-Linguistic Link: South-to-north expansion from Yangtze Valley reflected in declining Y-STR diversity of O3 subclades toward North China.

---

### 2. Austro-Asiatic
- Geographic Distribution: Cambodia/Vietnam (Mon-Khmer), Eastern/Central India (Munda)
- Key Haplogroups:
- O2a1-M95 (50-75%): Signature lineage linking Indian Munda and Southeast Asian Mon-Khmer speakers. Originated in Daic-speaking S. China ~20-40 kya, spread to India ~10 kya.
- H-M69: Present in Indian AA groups (e.g., 35% in Ho), indicating pre-existing South Asian ancestry.
- Genetic-Linguistic Link: Westward migration from MSEA to India supported by older TMRCA of O2a1 in Southeast Asia (16 kya) vs. India (10 kya). Sex-biased admixture evident in AA groups of India (paternal O2a1 vs. diverse mtDNA).

---

### 3. Austronesian
- Geographic Distribution: Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, Pacific Islands
- Key Haplogroups:
- O1a-M119: Found in 65% of Taiwanese aborigines; marker of initial "Out-of-Taiwan" expansion ~4 kya.
- O2a2b-M7: In Island Southeast Austronesians, indicating admixture with AA groups during southward migration.
- Genetic-Linguistic Link: Matrilocal practices in Vietnamese AN groups (Giarai, Ede) reduced Y-chromosome diversity relative to mtDNA.

---

### 4. **Tai-Kadai (Daic)**
- **Geographic Distribution**: Thailand, Laos, S. China
- **Key Haplogroups**:
- **O1b-M268** (incl. **O1b1a1a-M95**): Found in 45% of Thai and Lao; originated in S. China ~20-40 kya.
- **O2a1-M95**: Shared with AA speakers due to ancient interactions.
- **Genetic-Linguistic Link**: Northward gene flow into China during Bronze Age, with O1b frequencies declining from S. China to Yangtze.

---

### 5. **Hmong-Mien**
- **Geographic Distribution**: S. China, Northern SE Asia
- **Key Haplogroups**:
- **O3a2b-M7** (30-60%): Diagnostic for Hmong and Mien populations; expanded from Central China ~6-8 kya.
- **O3a2c1a-M117**: Secondary lineage from Sino-Tibetan admixture.
- **Genetic-Linguistic Link**: Shared O3 subclades with Han Chinese reflect long-term contact, but M7/M134 ratios distinguish Hmong-Mien.

---

### 6. **Dravidian**
- **Geographic Distribution**: S. India, Pakistan (Brahui), N. Sri Lanka
- **Key Haplogroups**:
- **L1-M22** (15-25%): Associated with Indus Valley Neolithic expansion; peaks in Dravidian speakers (e.g., 24% in Telugu).
- **H-M69** (20-35%): Indigenous "Indian marker"; high in tribal groups like Andhra Pradesh (34.5%).
- **R2-M479** (5-10%): Higher in Indo-Aryans but present in Dravidians.
- **Genetic-Linguistic Link**: Haplogroup L1 linked to Elamite-Dravidian connection and IVC expansion ~5.3 kya.

---

### 7. **Indo-European**
- **Geographic Distribution**: N. India, Pakistan, Iran, Central Asia
- **Key Haplogroups**:
- **R1a-Z93** (40-70%): Signature of Indo-Iranian migrations from Pontic Steppe ~3.5-4 kya; dominant in Brahmins (60.5%) and Ror (40.7%).
- **R2-M479** (10-33%): Indigenous to South Asia; higher in Indo-Aryans (e.g., 22.6% in Bengalis).
- **J2-M172** (15-28%): Linked to Iranian farmer ancestry.
- **Genetic-Linguistic Link**: Steppe-derived R1a-Z93 frequency correlates with Indo-Aryan language dominance in N. India.

---

### 8. **Altaic** (Controversial grouping)
- **Geographic Distribution**: Central Asia, Siberia, Mongolia, Turkey
- **Key Haplogroups**:
- **C2-M217** (Mongolic/Tungusic): 50-60% in Mongols; spread with Genghis Khan.
- **N1c-M178** (Turkic): 40-50% in Yakuts; originated in Siberia.
- **O3-M122** (Turko-Mongolic): Secondary lineage in Uzbeks/Kazakhs.
- **Genetic-Linguistic Link**: Weak correlation; Turkic languages adopted by diverse groups (e.g., high N in Yakuts vs. high R1b in Turks).

---

### 9. **Language Isolates**
- **Burusho** (Pakistan): **J2-M172** (28%) and **H-M69** (4%) – no clear genetic signature.
- **Nihali** (India): High **H-M69** and **L-M20** – indigenous ancestry.
- **Ainu** (Japan): **D1b-M55** – Paleolithic remnant lineage.

---

### Key Patterns and Controversies
1. **Founder Effects**: Language expansions often show dominant haplogroups (e.g., O3 in Sino-Tibetan, R1a in IE).
2. **Sex-Biased Admixture**: AA speakers in India show O2a1 paternal lineage but diverse local mtDNA.
3. **Methodological Challenges**: Y-STR mutation rate debates cause 3-fold age variations (e.g., O2a1 dates: 10-40 kya).
4. **Non-Congruent Expansions**: Turkic/Altaic languages spread without major genetic turnover.

This synthesis underscores that while some language families (e.g., Austronesian, Indo-European) show strong genetic-linguistic links due to male-biased migrations, others (e.g., Altaic, Austro-Asiatic) reflect complex admixture scenarios where languages spread through cultural diffusion more than demic replacement.

Тюрков не существует.

Here is a comprehensive overview of major language families in Russia and their associated Y-chromosome haplogroups, based on genetic studies:

### 1. Slavic (Indo-European)
- Geographic Distribution: European Russia (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians)
- Key Y-Haplogroups:
- R1a-M458/Z282: Signature of Slavic migrations (6th–9th c. CE):
- Dominates southern/central Russians (55%) and Ukrainians (50%) .
- Declines northward (20–30%) due to Uralic admixture .
- I1-M253 & I2-L621: Mesolithic European hunter-gatherer lineages, elevated in northwest Russians (15–20%) from Viking-era gene flow .
- N1c-M178: Finnic substratum in northern Russians (35–40%), tracing assimilation of Uralic tribes .
- Genetic Gradient:
- Autosomal DNA shows a north-south cline: Northern Russians have 18% Siberian ancestry, while southern groups show <5% .

### 2. Uralic Language Family
#### Finno-Ugric Branch (Karelians, Komi, Mari, Udmurts):
- N1c-M178: Primary Uralic marker:
- N3a4-Z1927: "Finnic" subclade expanded ~1.7–2 kya during Tarand graves culture .
- Frequencies: Karelians (40–60%), Komi (75%), Udmurts (77.8%) .
- R1a-Z283: Slavic admixture in Volga Finnic groups (e.g., 20% in Udmurts) .

#### **Ugric Branch** (Khanty, Mansi):
- **N1c-B539**: Shared with Hungarians; diverged ~4.9 kya, linking Ob-Ugric speakers to Central Europe .
- **Q-M25**: Siberian lineage (10–15%) from ancient interactions .

#### **Samoyedic Branch** (Nenets, Nganasans, Selkups):
- **N1a-L1026**: Dominant in **Nenets** (Tundra: 97.9%, Forest: 98.8%) .
- **N-P43**: Highest in **Nganasans** (94.1%); associated with reindeer pastoralism .
- Autosomal "Selkup-Ket" component: Unique to western Siberian groups .

### 3. **Turkic Language Family**
- **Geographic Distribution**: Volga-Ural (Tatars, Bashkirs), Siberia (Yakuts, Tuvans), Caucasus (Kumyks)
- **Key Y-Haplogroups**:
- **N1c-M178**: Siberian origin; peaks in **Yakuts** (81.8–94.6%) .
- **R1a-Z93**: Indo-Iranian legacy; high in **Volga Tatars** (30–40%) .
- **C2-M217**: Mongolian influence; found in **Siberian Turkics** (e.g., Altaians: 38%) .
- **Heterogeneity**:
- **Bashkirs**: Blend of N1c (25%), R1a (30%), and C2 (10%) reflecting Turkic-Ugric admixture .

### 4. **Tungusic Language Family**
- **Groups**: Evenks, Evens, Negidals (Siberia), Nanai (Far East)
- **Key Y-Haplogroup**:
- **C2a-M86 (formerly C3-M86)**: Found in 43.9% of Evenks; subclade **C2a-F5484** emerged ~3.3 kya .
- Subclades define ethnic splits:
- **C2a-B90**: Evenks (diverged ~1.9 kya).
- **C2a-M401**: Nanai/Ulchi .
- **Genetic Affinity**: Closest to Mongolic populations; shares Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry .

### 5. **Mongolic Language Family**
- **Groups**: Buryats, Kalmyks
- **Key Y-Haplogroup**:
- **C2-M217 (esp. C3*-Star Cluster)**: Classic Mongolian lineage (e.g., 50–60% in Buryats) linked to Genghis Khan-era expansions .
- **Autosomal Profile**: High "Siberian" component (78–82%) .

### 6. **Caucasian Language Families**
#### **Northwest Caucasian** (Adyghe, Abazins):
- **G2a-P15**: Indigenous Caucasus lineage (e.g., 55% in Abazins) .
- **J2-M172**: Near Eastern influence (e.g., 25% in Adyghe) .

#### **Northeast Caucasian** (Chechens, Ingush):
- **J1-ZS3111**: Dominant in Nakh-Dagestanian speakers (e.g., 80% in Ingush) from Bronze Age isolation .

### 7. **Paleosiberian/Isolate Languages**
- **Chukotko-Kamchatkan** (Chukchi, Koryak):
- **N1c-L1026**: ~40% in Koryaks .
- **Q-M242**: Ancient Siberian lineage (20–30%) .
- **Yukaghir**:
- **N1c-P43**: 50–60%; shared with Uralic speakers .
- **Ket (Yeniseian)**:
- **Q-M242**: Primary lineage (60%); distinct from Uralic/ Turkic .

### 💎 Key Genetic-Linguistic Patterns
1. **North-South Cline in Slavs**:
- Northern Russians show elevated **N1c** (Uralic) and Siberian autosomal ancestry (18%), while southern Russians have higher **R1a** (Slavic) .
2. **Siberian Signatures**:
- Uralic **N1c** and Tungusic **C2a** reflect expansions from Siberia ~4–5 kya, coinciding with Seima-Turbino metallurgy network .
3. **Caucasian Isolation**:
- Northeast Caucasians (Chechens/Ingush) exhibit extreme **J1** dominance due to geographic barriers .
4. **Turkic Heterogeneity**:
- Volga Tatars blend **R1a** (Indo-Iranian), **N1c** (Uralic), and **C2** (Mongolic), while Yakuts preserve archaic **N1c** .
5. **Samoyedic Distinctness**:
- **N-P43** in Nganasans correlates with Taymyr Peninsula isolation and lack of steppe admixture .

### Conclusion
The genetic landscape of Russia reveals how language expansions and population interactions shaped paternal lineages:
- **Uralic and Tungusic** groups retain strong Siberian links (**N1c**, **C2a**).
- **Slavic-Turkic** populations show gradients of European vs. Asian ancestry.
- **Caucasian isolates** (**G2a**, **J1**) highlight deep local continuity.
- **Samoyedic** and **Paleosiberian** groups preserve unique substrata despite later admixture .

С 1980-х годов учёные из Института общей генетики РАН исследуют, как меняется генетический портрет жителей Москвы. Особенно их интересует влияние миграции – переезда людей из других регионов и стран. Поскольку Москва – крупнейший мегаполис России, её население постоянно обновляется за счёт приезжих.

Исследователи сосредоточились на Y-хромосоме , которая передаётся только от отца к сыну. Её анализ помогает понять, откуда приезжали мужчины и как их гены "растворяются" в московском населении.

Учёные сравнили три поколения москвичей:

"Деды" – родившиеся около 1949 года (выборка АМ).

"Родители" – родившиеся около 1985 года (выборка ВМ).

"Дети" – новорождённые 2017–2018 годов (выборка БМ).

Методы:

У участников брали образцы крови и выделяли ДНК. (тест делали по 18 маркерам STR) и проводилось анкетирование (национальность, место рождения родителей и дедов).

Основные гаплогруппы с которыми столкнулись ученые в ходе исследования и их представленность на территории экс-СССР:

R1a – самая частая у русских (в Москве её 45–52%).

N – распространена у северных народов (раньше была 18%, сейчас 7%).

I1 и I2 – чаще встречаются в Северной Европе.

J1 и J2 – "южные" гаплогруппы (Кавказ, Ближний Восток).

G2a – типична для народов Кавказа.

Главные результаты:
А) Уменьшение "северных" и увеличение "южных" гаплогрупп
Гаплогруппа N (северное происхождение) раньше была у 18% москвичей, сейчас – лишь у 7%.

"Южные" гаплогруппы (J1, J2, G2a, L, T и др.) раньше встречались у 11%, теперь – у 21%.

Это связано с миграцией с Кавказа, Средней Азии и Закавказья.

Б) Сформировался разный генетический портрет поколений:
Старшее поколение (1940–50-е годы): 85% русских, мало мигрантов. Преобладают R1a, N, I1.

Молодое поколение (2017–2018 годы):
73% русских, 27% – другие национальности (киргизы, дагестанцы, армяне, таджики и др.).
Больше "южных" гаплогрупп (J2, G2a, L).

В) Миграция меняет Москву быстрее, чем кажется
За 4–6 поколений (примерно 100–150 лет) генофонд города может почти полностью обновиться. Если тенденция сохранится, через несколько десятилетий R1a и N будут встречаться реже, а J2 и G2a – чаще.

Назревает справедливый вопрос, зачем изучать популяции в плавильных котлах которыми являются мегаполисы?
Для науки: помогает понять, как миграция меняет генофонд больших городов.

Для медицины: некоторые генетические особенности связаны с болезнями, и их распространённость может измениться.

Для криминалистики: базы ДНК нужно обновлять, так как "типичный москвич" генетически уже не тот, что 50 лет назад.

Для общества: показывает, как быстро меняется население Москвы.

Москва генетически становится другим городом. Из-за миграции уменьшается доля "старых" московских гаплогрупп (N, R1a) и растёт доля "новых" (J2, G2a, L). Это естественный процесс, но он может повлиять на будущее города – от медицины до культуры.
ссылка : https://sciencejournals.ru/view-article/?j=genrus&y=2022&v=58&n=11&a=GenRus2211012Udina

>>3712
Фермеры из анатолии были точно такими же как и ямники. Светлая пигментация и голубые глаза это шифт в сторону европейских/североевразийских охотников, это был основной компонент ямников и они были носителями "спящих" генов светлой пигментации

>The rs12821256 allele of the KITLG gene that controls melanocyte development and melanin synthesis,[40] which is associated with blond hair and first found in an Ancient North Eurasian individual from Siberia dated to around 15,000 BC, is later found in three Eastern Hunter-Gatherers from Samara, Motala and Ukraine, and several later individuals with WSH ancestry.[27] Geneticist David Reich concludes that the massive migration of Western Steppe Herders probably brought this mutation to Europe, explaining why there are hundreds of millions of copies of this SNP in modern Europeans.[41] In general, the inhabitants of the Southern Arc had darker pigmentation on average than those of the north (Europe outside the Southern Arc and the Eurasian steppe). When examining composite pigmentation phenotypes, researchers observed that while average pigmentation did indeed differentiate between populations of the Southern Arc and the north, light phenotypes were found in both areas at similar early dates, growing in parallel in the more recent millennia of history, making light pigmentation in West Eurasia the result of constant selection pressure across time.[39]

Алсо тут ниже абзац

>A study in 2015 found that Yamnaya had the highest ever calculated genetic selection for height of any of the ancient populations tested.[23][37] A 2024 study argues that the different amounts of Yamnaya/Steppe-like ancestry in Northern and Southern Europeans is responsible for the difference in height.[42] In addition, "based on osteological evidence, the Yamnaya people were tall and had dolichocephalic crania (the average male was 175.5 centimetres (69.1 in) in height), while the representatives of Catacomb culture were stockier and had more brachycephalic crania."[43]

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